Hello Everyone,
To understand Ohio’s early history, it’s necessary to understand the clash of cultures which appeared in the late 1700's. There were four groups: the British soldiers, American soldiers, Native Americans such as the Delawares and Mohicans, and Moravian missionaries.
The British, housed at Fort Detroit, had closed the region to whites in an attempt to attract Native Americans who had been pushed west because of East Coast settlement. Various tribes of Indians sided with the British. Some of the more peaceful Delawares invited Moravian missionaries to come to the Tuscarawas Valley. When the American soldiers at Fort Pitt also sought to gain their support, these missionaries and converted Indians were caught in the middle. Unfortunately, the clash of cultures led eventually to the destruction of the missions and the massacre of 96 Christian Delawares.
In Tuscarawas County, one can learn this story by visiting Schoenbrunn Village and Gnadenhutten Historical Park and by attending the outdoor symphonic drama, Trumpet in the Land.
THE MORAVIANS
The Moravian religion developed during the 1400's in Moravia and Bohemia, known today as the Czech Republic. Its primary belief was that the Bible rather than the Roman Catholic Church was the ultimate authority in religious matters. Moravians were known for their emphasis on education and musical traditions, particularly their use of trombone choirs and orchestras accompanying their vocal music during church services.
During the 1730's, the Moravian Church started to send missionaries to the West Indies, Greenland, Africa, and South America. In 1740, they established a base in North America in Bethlehem, Pennsylvania. David Zeisberger, who was born in Moravia, in 1721, came to America in 1738 and played an important role in establishing Bethlehem.
The Delawares, who first encountered the missionaries in Bethlehem, Pennsylvania during the 1740's, had their first conversions in 1745. By 1770, more than 300 Delaware converts lived in Moravian missions in Pennsylvania. In 1771, Delaware leaders in Ohio invited Zeisberger and the Pennsylvania Delaware converts to move to Ohio’s Tuscarawas Valley. The Moravian church leaders and mission residents approved the move and under the leadership of Zeisberger, in 1772 and 1773, created new missions in Ohio country.
Zeisberger was a scholar of Native American language, history, and culture. He mastered the Delaware language as well as that of the Iroquois. He was familiar with other Indian dialects as well. He was the first to write down the Delaware Lenape language and was known for writing thousands of pages of letters and diaries. Today, his writings are regarded as one of the most important sources of Native American and frontier Ohio history.
SCHOENBRUNN AND GNADENHUTTEN
Schoenbrunn was developed in 1772 near what is now present day New Philadelphia, Ohio. On May 3, 1772, Zeisberger arrived with five Christian Delaware Indian families to clear the land, plant crops, and start the mission. In August and October, smaller groups started arriving. At its peak, the village had 400 inhabitants with the majority being Christian Delawares.
To accommodate the large number that was coming, with the approval of the Delaware Council, a second mission, Gnadenhutten, was chosen eight miles down the river on October 9, 1772. It was occupied by 151 Christian Mohican Indians and whites. It had a church, school, central meeting house, and between 50 and 60 cabins. There was much interaction between the two communities with Zeisberger, who resided at Schoenbrunn, serving as the area’s lead missionary.
Where most Moravian communities were designed in the form of a cross, Schoenbrunn originally had two streets forming a “T.” Other streets were added later. It had 60 buildings including a church and a school that were centrally located, corrals for horses, orchards, and a cemetery. A wattle fence surrounded the entire village. Field crops were raised outside the town proper.
Each family had its own separate lot that was big enough for their home and such out- buildings as a cow stable, chicken house, and smokehouse. Two cabin styles existed. Round cabins were rectangular in shape with round logs with mud chinking in between. The other type was a square log cabin with squared-off logs. Families could choose between a dirt and a wood floor. Zeisberger had the largest house.
LIFE AT THE MISSIONS
Daily life at Schoenbrunn, as well as Gnadenhutten, was typical of many Moravian missions. Education was stressed with both boys and girls in attendance. The school at Gnadenhutten was Ohio’s first school and also the first school west of the Allegheny Mountains. Having both sexes attend was unusual since this was at a time when education was largely restricted to males of the privileged classes in Europe and America. As many as 100 students sat on benches, segregated by sex, on different sides of the room. They learned to read and write in their native language.
Regular religious services, town meetings, and daily work routines were all well defined by Ohio’s first Christian church. The mission was governed by the missionaries and their assistants who were trusted converts. It included men and women and functioned as a town council. Formal rules of behavior were adopted in 1772 with serious transgressions leading to possible expulsion from the community. It was the first civil code of laws in Ohio.
Age, gender, and marital status determined the social and spiritual groupings called choirs. These were observed in dress, work, and seating in church. At twice daily church services, men sat on the right and women on the left. Choirs were also seen in the organization of cemeteries since they supposedly continued after death.
Agriculture was a vital cog in the Ohio Moravian missions since it created a stable food supply. Contrary to the traditional Indian division of labor, where women did the planting, cultivating, and harvesting, the men assisted at the missions with these activities. At the village’s peak, 80 acres were devoted to crops and plants. The Three Sisters crops of corn, beans, and squash were dominant. Potatoes, turnips, and cabbage were raised in family gardens.
The Moravians interfered little with the converts’ customs. Hunting remained important. They wore traditional garments and continued their crafts such as basket making, mat weaving, and leatherworking. They were allowed to have herbal medical treatments, maintain their traditional diets and household furnishings, and employ native agricultural methods. They continued their forms of body adornment of piercings and tattoos and maintained their relationships with traders and peaceful Indians.
In Gnadenhutten, the Mohicans were encouraged to adopt white customs of dress and work. The community prospered with many cabins having glass windows, basements, and pewter household utensils. They were skilled in the various arts and crafts and enjoyed music. Joshua, the Mohican elder who had brought his group from Pennsylvania to settle Gnadenhutten, built a spinet piano which he played as he led the singing at religious services. This mission on July 4, 1773, recorded the first birth in the territory of a white child, John Lewis.
REVOLUTIONARY WAR PROBLEMS
A major problem occurred during the American Revolution. Both the Americans at Fort Pitt (now Pittsburgh) and the British at Fort Detroit ( now Detroit) courted Indian allegiance. The Moravians were pacifists and did not choose to side with the British or the Americans. Zeisberger did provide crucial intelligence to American military leaders at Fort Pitt. The Moravians urged the Delawares to remain neutral.
As the missionaries’ neutrality came into question, the safety of the missions became threatened. Delaware leaders pressured the mission leaders to move closer to their capital, Goshochgunk (today known as Coshocton). In 1776, mission leaders established Lichtenau a few miles from Goshochgunk. Due to serious threats to the missionaries and convert defections, Zeisberger ordered Schoenbrunn closed. After final church services on April 17, 1777, the church was destroyed so it could not be used by non-Christians. Schoenbrunn’s residents moved to Lichtenau followed by those at Gnadenhutten a year later.
The situation became more harrowing as Delaware support for the Moravians weakened in the late 1770s. In 1780, Lichtenau was closed because of the lack of safety. They reoccupied Gnadenhutten and established two new missions on the Tuscarawas River - New Schoenbrunn and Salem by 1781. Each of the three housed around 150 converts.
In September 1781, the British rallied their Indian allies, primarily Wyandots and some Delawares, to forcibly remove the Christian Indians and the missionaries from the three villages. They destroyed their belongings and killed most of their livestock. The Indians were taken to Captives Town on the Sandusky River. Arriving in October, there were no cabins and very little food. Many died during the winter from disease and starvation as did much of their remaining livestock from lack of food and shelter.
Missionaries David Zeisberger and John Heckewelder, who had established Gnadenhutten, were arrested, taken to Fort Detroit, and charged with treason by the British. They were suspected of providing intelligence to the American army at Fort Pitt. They were acquitted, released, and made their way to Captives Town.
By spring, the Indian leaders asked the British authorities to let them return to their homes in the Tuscawarwas Valley and bring back whatever food and goods they could carry. More than one hundred returned in February 1782 to their homes in the Moravian villages to harvest the crops they had left behind.
MASSACRE AT GNADENHUTTEN
In March, an unauthorized raiding party of 160 Pennsylvania militiamen, under the command of Colonel David Williamson, set off to burn the Moravian towns to keep the abandoned villages from use by Indian war parties. The raid was not sanctioned by any authority.
On March 7, 1782, Williamson’s militia approached Gnadenhutten. They lied and told the Christian Indians they were there to protect them and remove them back to Fort Pitt. Once the Indians had gathered together, joined by others from Salem, the militiamen accused them of taking part in the ongoing raids into Pennsylvania. A different group of Indians had recently attacked white settlers in Pennsylvania and had left some of a family’s clothing, that they had taken from a massacred white family, at Gnadenhutten.
The Gnadenhutten group of Delawares denied the charges. However, Colonel Williamson held a council of his men to determine whether to take the Indians back to Fort Pitt or to kill them. Only 18 men voted to spare the lives of the Native Americans. Refusing to take part, some militiamen left the area.
Informed of their fate, the Indians spent the night praying and singing hymns. They didn’t resist or struggle. Women and girls were killed in the mission house and the men and boys in the cooper’s house. They were bludgeoned on their heads with mallets or gun butts. Then the soldiers scalped all 28 men, 29 women, and 39 children. Only two young men, one who was scalped, survived to tell the story. The corpses were piled into the mission buildings, and the town burned to the ground. The other abandoned Moravian towns were burned as well.
REVIVAL OF GNADENHUTTEN
A new Gnadenhutten arose in 1798 when missionary John Heckewelder returned to the area. Although the area was covered with dense growth, the old town had chimneys standing above the ground cover making it easier to discover the town’s layout. Heckewelder and his associates collected all the human bones they could find and buried them in the cellar of one of the former cabins. A mound currently marks the burial place.
Although three 4,000 acre tracts were reserved for Indians as an act of indemnity, John Ettwein petitioned Congress in 1783, and the area was opened to European settlers. John Heckewelder from Pennsylvania built the first house in 1798. The Native Americans gave up title in 1823 after the Moravians had made many improvements.
In 1877, a group returned to the Gnadenhutten massacre site and cleared away the brush. A 34-foot monument to the dead was erected and dedicated on June 4, 1882 at what is now Gnadenhutten Historical Park. The engraving on the pillar reads “Here triumphed in death ninety Christian Indians - March 8, 1782 - Gnadenhutten.”
After excavations in 1971 and 1973, the mission house and smaller cooper’s house have been reconstructed. In 1988, various Native American and First Nations people gathered at the site to dedicate a peace tree. The state of Ohio erected a memorial marker in 2003 calling it a Day of Shame.
Approximately 1,200 people live in the town today. Some are Moravians but few are Native Americans. The Moravians rebuilt their church in 1903 and dedicated it as a memorial to John Heckewelder. Currently, there are seven Moravian churches in Ohio with six of those in Tuscarawas County. The village also has a Masonic Temple and Methodist church in town while the Church of Christ and Full Gospel Pentecostal Church are on the outskirts.
In 1963, the park’s museum opened to interpret the massacre and Gnadenhutten’s history. Take time to watch the six minute video “Gnadenhutten - a Fascinating Story to Tell” then view two rooms of exhibits including objects found during the excavations.
You’ll discover several cases of household items and tools, religious artifacts, and musical instruments. One has cornstalk dolls. They’re part of the hundreds that villager John Zimmerman gave away. You will also see books from the 1800's, arrowheads, and two cases of pottery shards and glass found at the site.
Several celebrations are held at the park. The Fourth of July celebration features horse-drawn carriages and fireworks. It holds Pioneer Days on the first weekend in August and an Apple Butter festival during the second weekend of October. Its Native American heritage continues to be marked with its "Indian Valley" moniker and a Christian Indian Christmas drive-thru display from Thanksgiving through December.
DETAILS
You will find Gnadenhutten Historical Park and Museum at 182 Cherry Street. The telephone number is (740) 254-4143. The museum and park are open free of charge to the public. Neither has set hours. It is necessary to call for an appointment to see the museum since it is run by volunteers.
RECONSTRUCTING SCHOENBRUNN
Moravian minister, Reverend Joseph Weinland from Dover, wanted in the early 1920's to memorialize Schoenbrunn. Extensive research from Moravian archives in Bethlehem, Pennsylvania uncovered the original town plan drawn in 1772. Using this as a guide, an archeological survey was completed in 1923 establishing the exact location of various buildings and the town’s layout. That same year, the Ohio legislature gave the project a $10,000 grant to purchase Schoenbrunn’s original site.
Further research and planning continued throughout the 1920's with a second state appropriation funding the site’s reconstruction and operation. The first log house and school were completed in 1927 and by 1935, 14 more buildings were finished. Because Zeisberger had kept careful records, the buildings could be replicated to their exact details. During the 1960's, archaeological work led to the reconstruction of several traditional Indian dwellings and the wattle fence that had surrounded the village.
While at Schoenbrunn, take time to tour the museum at their visitor center. Their video “A Meeting of Cultures” traces Schoenbrunn’s history from settlement through excavation and reconstruction. A one room museum displays artifacts that have been excavated at Schoenbrunn such as animal bones, pieces of a copper kettle, and fragments of glass bottles and windows. You’ll also see clay pipe fragments, door locks, chinking, knives, and candle molds. A case of tools contains chisels, felling axes, and mallets.
Signage provides details on a variety of subjects. These include religion and education, agriculture and hunting, the mission, the Moravians and Zeisberger, John Heckewelder, and the Lenate (Delaware) Indians.
A walk into the field behind the visitor center makes it possible to visit 16 buildings including the church, school, and Zeisberger’s cabin. You are allowed to enter the buildings and can sit at the table or lie down on the bed. At nearby God’s Acre, visitors can explore the original village cemetery where 44 Native Americans are buried.
Before starting your exploration, pick up a copy at the Center of “Historic Schoenbrunn Village Walking Tour” providing details on who lived at each building you’ll see. You’ll also learn more about the school, gardens, and church. The following are some that we saw.
Anton’s Cabin - In the original group that came with Zeisberger, Anton was Zeisberger’s main tutor in learning the Delaware language. He is buried in God’s acre.
Solomon’s Cabin - Solomon was a former Munsee chief, who was blind, and lived with his wife. During a Shawnee uprising, he was persuaded by his family to leave the mission. However, he found he could no longer live among the “savages” and returned to the mission.
Zeisberger’s Cabin - He was in his 50's when he lived here. The two story home’s fireplace is located on the exact remains of the one from the original 1772 cabin. His study is in the cabin’s rear.
Papunhank’s Cabin - Johannas was a prophet and the village doctor. He was a herbalist, medicine man, and surgeon who believed in providing cures through sweating and bloodlettings. He had a wife and daughter and is buried in God’s Acre.
School - Students were taught arithmetic, spelling, language, and health. The Delawares saw their language written for the first time at this school. The original school bell is in the museum.
Esther’s Cabin - Esther lived with the missionaries for 40 years and was one of their most devout converts. She was in charge of the village’s guesthouse and also had a home in Gnadenhutten. Hers was the last home built. She was a deaconess in the Schoenbrunn Society. It was the first temperance society in America to ban drink. Visitors will discover a bed and materials for weaving baskets.
Abraham’s Cabin - Abraham was another Native Helper who helped Zeisberger preach and convert others for 26 years.
Jungmann’s Cabin - Anna Margaret Jungmann assisted Zeisberger by mending his clothes and fixing his meals. Brother Jungmann served as the assistant pastor and Sunday school teacher. They were also the village’s innkeepers, providing lodging for any missionary or dignitary who stayed overnight at their home.
Church - The church, which is the largest building, is a working church in the Moravian faith with Easter Sunrise service and several weddings still held here. The three altar chairs were used by Jungmann, Zeisberger, and a Native Helper who was often James Davis. The original church held 300 people with converts representing nine tribes.
DETAILS
You will find Schoenbrunn at 1984 E. High Avenue in New Philadelphia, Ohio. The phone number is (800) 686-6124. Admission fees are $7 for adults, $5 for seniors (60+), $4 for children (6-17) and under age six, it's free. It is open Memorial Day through Labor Day from Tuesday through Saturday from 9:30 a.m. to 5:00 p.m. and on Sundays from noon to 5:00 p.m. The site has free parking and picnic facilities.
GOSHEN CEMETERY
David Zeisberger’s grave is located in the village of Goshen’s cemetery. Its marble slab includes the epitaph “This faithful servant of the Lord labored among the American Indians as missionary, during the last 60 years of his life.” He died on November 20, 1798 at age 87.
TRUMPET IN THE LAND
In its 49th season, Trumpet in the Land is Ohio’s premier and longest running outdoor theater production. It is the sixth oldest production of its type in the country.
Patrons sit in an amphitheater while this symphonic drama relates the story of Zeisberger and his Christian Indian congregations. It covers the events from 1772 when Schoenbrunn and Gnadenhutten were settled through the brutal Gnadenhutten massacre and destruction of the missionary villages in 1782. Love, humor, tragedy, and adventure are all wrapped into one compelling drama.
Choreography varies from ballet to a square dance to a fire dance by the extensive cast. Music ranges from simple hymns to Native American chants and a British minuet. The battle pyrotechnics and horses on stage add to the evening.
Paul Green, a Pulitzer prizewinning playwright, wrote this production which takes place in a beautiful natural setting only a few miles from where the original Schoenbrunn was located. Green personally handpicked the theater’s location. His other works include Lost Colony, which is still performed at the Fort Raleigh National Historic Site in North Carolina, and The Stephen Foster Story, still produced in Bardstown, Kentucky. Trumpet in the Land opened on July 3, 1970.
Ohio Outdoor Historical Drama is responsible for this 2-1/2 hour show. The professional cast of 44 includes many locals who have been part of the show for many years. It also includes college students from all over the country. Acting, singing, and dancing are first rate. Costuming is authentic and scenery is outstanding. It’s a great way to spend an evening.
In 2018, there will also be other shows presented at the amphitheater or its pavilion. They are Bye Bye Birdie, Why do Fools Fall in Love, Life Could be a Dream, Dorothy Meets Alice, and Dracula.
Photography is not allowed during the shows since they’re copyrighted. You may take pictures of the cast when they line up at the top of the amphitheater after the show. Trumpet in the Land's web site also contains many images.
Since programs are not provided, it is wise to buy their souvenir program for $3. Seats have backs and aren’t assigned. However, the highest three rows are reserved for those with disabilities.
DETAILS
Trumpet in the Land is located at the 1,400 seat Schoenbrunn Amphitheater at 1600 Trumpet Drive N.E. in New Philadelphia.Tickets are very reasonable. It’s $20 for adults, $18 for seniors and students, and $10 for children. They can be ordered by calling (330) 339-1132. A credit card guarantee is required when making a reservation. There are no refunds. Tickets can be purchased and picked up at the box office after 3:00 p.m. on performance day. Shows run from early June through late August, Monday through Saturday at 8:30 p.m. More details including a complete schedule are on their web site.
To understand Ohio’s early history, it’s necessary to understand the clash of cultures which appeared in the late 1700's. There were four groups: the British soldiers, American soldiers, Native Americans such as the Delawares and Mohicans, and Moravian missionaries.
The British, housed at Fort Detroit, had closed the region to whites in an attempt to attract Native Americans who had been pushed west because of East Coast settlement. Various tribes of Indians sided with the British. Some of the more peaceful Delawares invited Moravian missionaries to come to the Tuscarawas Valley. When the American soldiers at Fort Pitt also sought to gain their support, these missionaries and converted Indians were caught in the middle. Unfortunately, the clash of cultures led eventually to the destruction of the missions and the massacre of 96 Christian Delawares.
In Tuscarawas County, one can learn this story by visiting Schoenbrunn Village and Gnadenhutten Historical Park and by attending the outdoor symphonic drama, Trumpet in the Land.
THE MORAVIANS
The Moravian religion developed during the 1400's in Moravia and Bohemia, known today as the Czech Republic. Its primary belief was that the Bible rather than the Roman Catholic Church was the ultimate authority in religious matters. Moravians were known for their emphasis on education and musical traditions, particularly their use of trombone choirs and orchestras accompanying their vocal music during church services.
During the 1730's, the Moravian Church started to send missionaries to the West Indies, Greenland, Africa, and South America. In 1740, they established a base in North America in Bethlehem, Pennsylvania. David Zeisberger, who was born in Moravia, in 1721, came to America in 1738 and played an important role in establishing Bethlehem.
The Delawares, who first encountered the missionaries in Bethlehem, Pennsylvania during the 1740's, had their first conversions in 1745. By 1770, more than 300 Delaware converts lived in Moravian missions in Pennsylvania. In 1771, Delaware leaders in Ohio invited Zeisberger and the Pennsylvania Delaware converts to move to Ohio’s Tuscarawas Valley. The Moravian church leaders and mission residents approved the move and under the leadership of Zeisberger, in 1772 and 1773, created new missions in Ohio country.
Zeisberger was a scholar of Native American language, history, and culture. He mastered the Delaware language as well as that of the Iroquois. He was familiar with other Indian dialects as well. He was the first to write down the Delaware Lenape language and was known for writing thousands of pages of letters and diaries. Today, his writings are regarded as one of the most important sources of Native American and frontier Ohio history.
SCHOENBRUNN AND GNADENHUTTEN
Schoenbrunn was developed in 1772 near what is now present day New Philadelphia, Ohio. On May 3, 1772, Zeisberger arrived with five Christian Delaware Indian families to clear the land, plant crops, and start the mission. In August and October, smaller groups started arriving. At its peak, the village had 400 inhabitants with the majority being Christian Delawares.
To accommodate the large number that was coming, with the approval of the Delaware Council, a second mission, Gnadenhutten, was chosen eight miles down the river on October 9, 1772. It was occupied by 151 Christian Mohican Indians and whites. It had a church, school, central meeting house, and between 50 and 60 cabins. There was much interaction between the two communities with Zeisberger, who resided at Schoenbrunn, serving as the area’s lead missionary.
Where most Moravian communities were designed in the form of a cross, Schoenbrunn originally had two streets forming a “T.” Other streets were added later. It had 60 buildings including a church and a school that were centrally located, corrals for horses, orchards, and a cemetery. A wattle fence surrounded the entire village. Field crops were raised outside the town proper.
Each family had its own separate lot that was big enough for their home and such out- buildings as a cow stable, chicken house, and smokehouse. Two cabin styles existed. Round cabins were rectangular in shape with round logs with mud chinking in between. The other type was a square log cabin with squared-off logs. Families could choose between a dirt and a wood floor. Zeisberger had the largest house.
LIFE AT THE MISSIONS
Daily life at Schoenbrunn, as well as Gnadenhutten, was typical of many Moravian missions. Education was stressed with both boys and girls in attendance. The school at Gnadenhutten was Ohio’s first school and also the first school west of the Allegheny Mountains. Having both sexes attend was unusual since this was at a time when education was largely restricted to males of the privileged classes in Europe and America. As many as 100 students sat on benches, segregated by sex, on different sides of the room. They learned to read and write in their native language.
Regular religious services, town meetings, and daily work routines were all well defined by Ohio’s first Christian church. The mission was governed by the missionaries and their assistants who were trusted converts. It included men and women and functioned as a town council. Formal rules of behavior were adopted in 1772 with serious transgressions leading to possible expulsion from the community. It was the first civil code of laws in Ohio.
Age, gender, and marital status determined the social and spiritual groupings called choirs. These were observed in dress, work, and seating in church. At twice daily church services, men sat on the right and women on the left. Choirs were also seen in the organization of cemeteries since they supposedly continued after death.
Agriculture was a vital cog in the Ohio Moravian missions since it created a stable food supply. Contrary to the traditional Indian division of labor, where women did the planting, cultivating, and harvesting, the men assisted at the missions with these activities. At the village’s peak, 80 acres were devoted to crops and plants. The Three Sisters crops of corn, beans, and squash were dominant. Potatoes, turnips, and cabbage were raised in family gardens.
The Moravians interfered little with the converts’ customs. Hunting remained important. They wore traditional garments and continued their crafts such as basket making, mat weaving, and leatherworking. They were allowed to have herbal medical treatments, maintain their traditional diets and household furnishings, and employ native agricultural methods. They continued their forms of body adornment of piercings and tattoos and maintained their relationships with traders and peaceful Indians.
In Gnadenhutten, the Mohicans were encouraged to adopt white customs of dress and work. The community prospered with many cabins having glass windows, basements, and pewter household utensils. They were skilled in the various arts and crafts and enjoyed music. Joshua, the Mohican elder who had brought his group from Pennsylvania to settle Gnadenhutten, built a spinet piano which he played as he led the singing at religious services. This mission on July 4, 1773, recorded the first birth in the territory of a white child, John Lewis.
REVOLUTIONARY WAR PROBLEMS
A major problem occurred during the American Revolution. Both the Americans at Fort Pitt (now Pittsburgh) and the British at Fort Detroit ( now Detroit) courted Indian allegiance. The Moravians were pacifists and did not choose to side with the British or the Americans. Zeisberger did provide crucial intelligence to American military leaders at Fort Pitt. The Moravians urged the Delawares to remain neutral.
As the missionaries’ neutrality came into question, the safety of the missions became threatened. Delaware leaders pressured the mission leaders to move closer to their capital, Goshochgunk (today known as Coshocton). In 1776, mission leaders established Lichtenau a few miles from Goshochgunk. Due to serious threats to the missionaries and convert defections, Zeisberger ordered Schoenbrunn closed. After final church services on April 17, 1777, the church was destroyed so it could not be used by non-Christians. Schoenbrunn’s residents moved to Lichtenau followed by those at Gnadenhutten a year later.
The situation became more harrowing as Delaware support for the Moravians weakened in the late 1770s. In 1780, Lichtenau was closed because of the lack of safety. They reoccupied Gnadenhutten and established two new missions on the Tuscarawas River - New Schoenbrunn and Salem by 1781. Each of the three housed around 150 converts.
In September 1781, the British rallied their Indian allies, primarily Wyandots and some Delawares, to forcibly remove the Christian Indians and the missionaries from the three villages. They destroyed their belongings and killed most of their livestock. The Indians were taken to Captives Town on the Sandusky River. Arriving in October, there were no cabins and very little food. Many died during the winter from disease and starvation as did much of their remaining livestock from lack of food and shelter.
Missionaries David Zeisberger and John Heckewelder, who had established Gnadenhutten, were arrested, taken to Fort Detroit, and charged with treason by the British. They were suspected of providing intelligence to the American army at Fort Pitt. They were acquitted, released, and made their way to Captives Town.
By spring, the Indian leaders asked the British authorities to let them return to their homes in the Tuscawarwas Valley and bring back whatever food and goods they could carry. More than one hundred returned in February 1782 to their homes in the Moravian villages to harvest the crops they had left behind.
MASSACRE AT GNADENHUTTEN
In March, an unauthorized raiding party of 160 Pennsylvania militiamen, under the command of Colonel David Williamson, set off to burn the Moravian towns to keep the abandoned villages from use by Indian war parties. The raid was not sanctioned by any authority.
On March 7, 1782, Williamson’s militia approached Gnadenhutten. They lied and told the Christian Indians they were there to protect them and remove them back to Fort Pitt. Once the Indians had gathered together, joined by others from Salem, the militiamen accused them of taking part in the ongoing raids into Pennsylvania. A different group of Indians had recently attacked white settlers in Pennsylvania and had left some of a family’s clothing, that they had taken from a massacred white family, at Gnadenhutten.
The Gnadenhutten group of Delawares denied the charges. However, Colonel Williamson held a council of his men to determine whether to take the Indians back to Fort Pitt or to kill them. Only 18 men voted to spare the lives of the Native Americans. Refusing to take part, some militiamen left the area.
Informed of their fate, the Indians spent the night praying and singing hymns. They didn’t resist or struggle. Women and girls were killed in the mission house and the men and boys in the cooper’s house. They were bludgeoned on their heads with mallets or gun butts. Then the soldiers scalped all 28 men, 29 women, and 39 children. Only two young men, one who was scalped, survived to tell the story. The corpses were piled into the mission buildings, and the town burned to the ground. The other abandoned Moravian towns were burned as well.
REVIVAL OF GNADENHUTTEN
A new Gnadenhutten arose in 1798 when missionary John Heckewelder returned to the area. Although the area was covered with dense growth, the old town had chimneys standing above the ground cover making it easier to discover the town’s layout. Heckewelder and his associates collected all the human bones they could find and buried them in the cellar of one of the former cabins. A mound currently marks the burial place.
Although three 4,000 acre tracts were reserved for Indians as an act of indemnity, John Ettwein petitioned Congress in 1783, and the area was opened to European settlers. John Heckewelder from Pennsylvania built the first house in 1798. The Native Americans gave up title in 1823 after the Moravians had made many improvements.
In 1877, a group returned to the Gnadenhutten massacre site and cleared away the brush. A 34-foot monument to the dead was erected and dedicated on June 4, 1882 at what is now Gnadenhutten Historical Park. The engraving on the pillar reads “Here triumphed in death ninety Christian Indians - March 8, 1782 - Gnadenhutten.”
After excavations in 1971 and 1973, the mission house and smaller cooper’s house have been reconstructed. In 1988, various Native American and First Nations people gathered at the site to dedicate a peace tree. The state of Ohio erected a memorial marker in 2003 calling it a Day of Shame.
Approximately 1,200 people live in the town today. Some are Moravians but few are Native Americans. The Moravians rebuilt their church in 1903 and dedicated it as a memorial to John Heckewelder. Currently, there are seven Moravian churches in Ohio with six of those in Tuscarawas County. The village also has a Masonic Temple and Methodist church in town while the Church of Christ and Full Gospel Pentecostal Church are on the outskirts.
In 1963, the park’s museum opened to interpret the massacre and Gnadenhutten’s history. Take time to watch the six minute video “Gnadenhutten - a Fascinating Story to Tell” then view two rooms of exhibits including objects found during the excavations.
You’ll discover several cases of household items and tools, religious artifacts, and musical instruments. One has cornstalk dolls. They’re part of the hundreds that villager John Zimmerman gave away. You will also see books from the 1800's, arrowheads, and two cases of pottery shards and glass found at the site.
Several celebrations are held at the park. The Fourth of July celebration features horse-drawn carriages and fireworks. It holds Pioneer Days on the first weekend in August and an Apple Butter festival during the second weekend of October. Its Native American heritage continues to be marked with its "Indian Valley" moniker and a Christian Indian Christmas drive-thru display from Thanksgiving through December.
DETAILS
You will find Gnadenhutten Historical Park and Museum at 182 Cherry Street. The telephone number is (740) 254-4143. The museum and park are open free of charge to the public. Neither has set hours. It is necessary to call for an appointment to see the museum since it is run by volunteers.
RECONSTRUCTING SCHOENBRUNN
Moravian minister, Reverend Joseph Weinland from Dover, wanted in the early 1920's to memorialize Schoenbrunn. Extensive research from Moravian archives in Bethlehem, Pennsylvania uncovered the original town plan drawn in 1772. Using this as a guide, an archeological survey was completed in 1923 establishing the exact location of various buildings and the town’s layout. That same year, the Ohio legislature gave the project a $10,000 grant to purchase Schoenbrunn’s original site.
Further research and planning continued throughout the 1920's with a second state appropriation funding the site’s reconstruction and operation. The first log house and school were completed in 1927 and by 1935, 14 more buildings were finished. Because Zeisberger had kept careful records, the buildings could be replicated to their exact details. During the 1960's, archaeological work led to the reconstruction of several traditional Indian dwellings and the wattle fence that had surrounded the village.
While at Schoenbrunn, take time to tour the museum at their visitor center. Their video “A Meeting of Cultures” traces Schoenbrunn’s history from settlement through excavation and reconstruction. A one room museum displays artifacts that have been excavated at Schoenbrunn such as animal bones, pieces of a copper kettle, and fragments of glass bottles and windows. You’ll also see clay pipe fragments, door locks, chinking, knives, and candle molds. A case of tools contains chisels, felling axes, and mallets.
Signage provides details on a variety of subjects. These include religion and education, agriculture and hunting, the mission, the Moravians and Zeisberger, John Heckewelder, and the Lenate (Delaware) Indians.
A walk into the field behind the visitor center makes it possible to visit 16 buildings including the church, school, and Zeisberger’s cabin. You are allowed to enter the buildings and can sit at the table or lie down on the bed. At nearby God’s Acre, visitors can explore the original village cemetery where 44 Native Americans are buried.
Before starting your exploration, pick up a copy at the Center of “Historic Schoenbrunn Village Walking Tour” providing details on who lived at each building you’ll see. You’ll also learn more about the school, gardens, and church. The following are some that we saw.
Anton’s Cabin - In the original group that came with Zeisberger, Anton was Zeisberger’s main tutor in learning the Delaware language. He is buried in God’s acre.
Solomon’s Cabin - Solomon was a former Munsee chief, who was blind, and lived with his wife. During a Shawnee uprising, he was persuaded by his family to leave the mission. However, he found he could no longer live among the “savages” and returned to the mission.
Zeisberger’s Cabin - He was in his 50's when he lived here. The two story home’s fireplace is located on the exact remains of the one from the original 1772 cabin. His study is in the cabin’s rear.
Papunhank’s Cabin - Johannas was a prophet and the village doctor. He was a herbalist, medicine man, and surgeon who believed in providing cures through sweating and bloodlettings. He had a wife and daughter and is buried in God’s Acre.
School - Students were taught arithmetic, spelling, language, and health. The Delawares saw their language written for the first time at this school. The original school bell is in the museum.
Esther’s Cabin - Esther lived with the missionaries for 40 years and was one of their most devout converts. She was in charge of the village’s guesthouse and also had a home in Gnadenhutten. Hers was the last home built. She was a deaconess in the Schoenbrunn Society. It was the first temperance society in America to ban drink. Visitors will discover a bed and materials for weaving baskets.
Abraham’s Cabin - Abraham was another Native Helper who helped Zeisberger preach and convert others for 26 years.
Jungmann’s Cabin - Anna Margaret Jungmann assisted Zeisberger by mending his clothes and fixing his meals. Brother Jungmann served as the assistant pastor and Sunday school teacher. They were also the village’s innkeepers, providing lodging for any missionary or dignitary who stayed overnight at their home.
Church - The church, which is the largest building, is a working church in the Moravian faith with Easter Sunrise service and several weddings still held here. The three altar chairs were used by Jungmann, Zeisberger, and a Native Helper who was often James Davis. The original church held 300 people with converts representing nine tribes.
DETAILS
You will find Schoenbrunn at 1984 E. High Avenue in New Philadelphia, Ohio. The phone number is (800) 686-6124. Admission fees are $7 for adults, $5 for seniors (60+), $4 for children (6-17) and under age six, it's free. It is open Memorial Day through Labor Day from Tuesday through Saturday from 9:30 a.m. to 5:00 p.m. and on Sundays from noon to 5:00 p.m. The site has free parking and picnic facilities.
GOSHEN CEMETERY
David Zeisberger’s grave is located in the village of Goshen’s cemetery. Its marble slab includes the epitaph “This faithful servant of the Lord labored among the American Indians as missionary, during the last 60 years of his life.” He died on November 20, 1798 at age 87.
TRUMPET IN THE LAND
In its 49th season, Trumpet in the Land is Ohio’s premier and longest running outdoor theater production. It is the sixth oldest production of its type in the country.
Patrons sit in an amphitheater while this symphonic drama relates the story of Zeisberger and his Christian Indian congregations. It covers the events from 1772 when Schoenbrunn and Gnadenhutten were settled through the brutal Gnadenhutten massacre and destruction of the missionary villages in 1782. Love, humor, tragedy, and adventure are all wrapped into one compelling drama.
Choreography varies from ballet to a square dance to a fire dance by the extensive cast. Music ranges from simple hymns to Native American chants and a British minuet. The battle pyrotechnics and horses on stage add to the evening.
Paul Green, a Pulitzer prizewinning playwright, wrote this production which takes place in a beautiful natural setting only a few miles from where the original Schoenbrunn was located. Green personally handpicked the theater’s location. His other works include Lost Colony, which is still performed at the Fort Raleigh National Historic Site in North Carolina, and The Stephen Foster Story, still produced in Bardstown, Kentucky. Trumpet in the Land opened on July 3, 1970.
Ohio Outdoor Historical Drama is responsible for this 2-1/2 hour show. The professional cast of 44 includes many locals who have been part of the show for many years. It also includes college students from all over the country. Acting, singing, and dancing are first rate. Costuming is authentic and scenery is outstanding. It’s a great way to spend an evening.
In 2018, there will also be other shows presented at the amphitheater or its pavilion. They are Bye Bye Birdie, Why do Fools Fall in Love, Life Could be a Dream, Dorothy Meets Alice, and Dracula.
Photography is not allowed during the shows since they’re copyrighted. You may take pictures of the cast when they line up at the top of the amphitheater after the show. Trumpet in the Land's web site also contains many images.
Since programs are not provided, it is wise to buy their souvenir program for $3. Seats have backs and aren’t assigned. However, the highest three rows are reserved for those with disabilities.
DETAILS
Trumpet in the Land is located at the 1,400 seat Schoenbrunn Amphitheater at 1600 Trumpet Drive N.E. in New Philadelphia.Tickets are very reasonable. It’s $20 for adults, $18 for seniors and students, and $10 for children. They can be ordered by calling (330) 339-1132. A credit card guarantee is required when making a reservation. There are no refunds. Tickets can be purchased and picked up at the box office after 3:00 p.m. on performance day. Shows run from early June through late August, Monday through Saturday at 8:30 p.m. More details including a complete schedule are on their web site.
David Zeisberger's Portrait at Schoenbrunn Visitor Center
John Heckewelder's Portrait at Gnadenhutten Historical Park Museum
Delaware Indians Exhibit at Gnadenhutten Historical Park and Museum
Arrowheads and Small Items Excavated at Gnadenhutten
Tools Used at Gnadenhutten
Burial Mound of the Delaware Converts
The 34-foot Monument to Those Who Died in the Gnadenhutten Massacre
Replica of the Mission House Where the Women and Girls Were Killed
Replica of the Cooper's House Where the Men and Boys Were Killed
Museum at Gnadenhutten Historical Park
Zeisberger's Grave at Goshen Cemetery in Goshen, Ohio
Schoenbrunn Visitor Center
Overall Shot of a Small Portion of the Village
Anton's Cabin Exterior
Anton's Cabin Interior Where Sometimes Woodworking is Demonstrated
Solomon's Cabin
Solomon's Cabin Interior
Zeisberger's Cabin
Papunhank's Cabin
The Schoolhouse
Schoolhouse Interior
Esther's Cabin
Abraham's Cabin
Interior of Abraham's Cabin
Church on Left and Jungmann's Cabin on the Right
Interior of Jungmann's Cabin
Interior of the Church
Bell from Schoolhouse Located at Schoenbrunn's Visitor Center's Museum
Tools Used at Schoenbrunn